The research behind ICM.
Identity, Capacity and Maturity is a research-informed construct for leader formation. This page sets out the research it draws on — and the evidence, with sources, behind the leadership picture we describe across the site.
Identity, Capacity and Maturity draw on established research.
ICM is not a convenient grouping. It closely parallels an established integrative account of leader development — Day, Harrison and Halpin’s identity, expertise and adult development — whose central argument is that leadership cannot be reduced to acquiring competencies. It grows through the interaction of who someone understands themselves to be, what they become capable of, and how their way of making sense of complexity develops over time.
Identity research treats becoming a leader as a change in self-concept, not a set of techniques. Work on purpose links identity to hope through a sense of agency: a clear sense of what matters gives people something to move towards (Bronk and colleagues).
Hope theory helps explain why capacity matters. Hope grows when people can identify meaningful goals, see possible pathways, and retain the agency to act (Snyder). ICM describes the wider formation through which these become increasingly available. Psychological-capital research adds that hope, efficacy, resilience and optimism are developable rather than fixed.
Maturity draws on constructive-developmental research — the capacity to examine one’s own assumptions and hold competing perspectives — and on wisdom research: proportion, perspective, and concern beyond oneself.
We don’t claim these are equivalent. Research identifies valued goals, pathways and agency as central to hope; ICM describes the developmental foundations through which those become increasingly available — an identity oriented towards what matters, the capacity to find and pursue a way forward, and the maturity to exercise agency wisely, relationally and proportionately.
ICM is LIRA’s research-informed construct for forming people who can make hope credible: clear about what matters, increasingly able to find a way forward, and mature enough to exercise agency wisely when the way becomes difficult.
The leadership picture, with sources.
Every significant figure we cite across the site, grouped as it appears in the Leadership Gap — with the exact report, year and a link.
- Across 52 countries, the leadership needs people name most are hope (56%) and trust (33%), followed by compassion (7%) and stability (4%).
- Only 48% of managers strongly agree they have the skills to be exceptional in the role. — Gallup, The Manager Squeeze.
- 71% of leaders report increased stress (up from 63% in 2022); 40% of stressed leaders have considered leaving leadership for their wellbeing. — DDI, Global Leadership Forecast 2025.
- 82% of UK managers received no formal management training before taking the role. — CMI / YouGov, Taking Responsibility (2023).
- Around 57% of managers say they would do almost anything to avoid a difficult conversation. — Chartered Management Institute (2015).
- Engaged 20% · not engaged 64% · actively disengaged 16%.
- A lot of daily stress 40% · loneliness 22% · sadness 23% · anger 22%.
- Thriving in wellbeing 34%.
- Manager engagement 22% (down from 31% in 2022); 79% of managers are engaged in best-practice organisations.
Figures are quoted as reported by each source and rounded where the original does. Global engagement and wellbeing figures reflect 2025 data published April 2026.
The research literature behind ICM.
We present these as parallels and foundations, not as claims of equivalence between ICM and any single theory.